Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II

Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
Part of the decolonization of the Americas
Clockwise from top: Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II, illustration of Túpac Amaru II from c. 1784–1806, rebel assault in the Rebellion of Oruro, Siege of La Paz
Date 4 November 1780 – 15 March 1783 Location Viceroyalty of Peru and Real Audiencia of Charcas Result Spanish victory Abolition of repartimiento, corregidores, and Kuraka Aymara-Quechua cultural genocide
Belligerents
Spanish Empire	Aymara-Quechua rebels
Commanders and leaders
Agustín de Jáuregui Antonio de Areche José del Valle Gabriel de Avilés Mateo Pumacahua Tiburcio Landa † Diego Cusihuamán Antonio de Arriaga  Juan José de Vértiz Fernando Vélaz Sebastián de Segurola Ignacio Flores José de Reseguín	Túpac Amaru II  Micaela Bastidas  Tomasa Tito Condemayta  Diego Cristóbal Hipólito Túpac Amaru  Mariano Túpac Amaru Antonio de Figueroa Andrés Túpac Amaru Pedro Vilcapaza  Túpac Katari  Tomás Katari  Bartolina Sisa  Gregoria Apaza
Strength
Spanish units: 20,000–30,000 soldiers	Rebel units: 100,000 soldiers 40,000 – 60,000 First Phase 10,000 – 40,000 Second Phase
Casualties and losses
100,000 total estimated killed 10,000 died of starvation or illness

The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II was an uprising by kuraka-led Aymara, Quechua, and mestizo rebels aimed at overthrowing Spanish colonial rule in Peru, from 1780 to 1783. The causes of the rebellion included opposition to the Bourbon Reforms, an economic downturn in colonial Peru, and a grassroots revival of Inca cultural identity led by Túpac Amaru II, an indigenous kuraka and the leader of the rebellion. While Amaru II and other prominent rebel leaders were captured and executed by the Spanish in 1781, the rebellion continued for at least another year under Diego Cristóbal, Túpac Katari and Andrés Túpac Amaru, among others.

The rebellion arose as a reaction to the imposition of the Bourbon Reforms in the Spanish viceroyalties of America. These reforms, among others, forced the indigenous population to mine minerals under the Mit'a system, largely in Cerro Rico in Potosí. Among Túpac Amaru II's proclamations were the demands of the freedom of the indigenous population and the abolition of slavery. Most of the rebels were indigenous Aymara and Quechua people, mestizos, and some creoles and Afro-Peruvian slaves.

The rebellion began with the capture and execution of Antonio de Arriaga, the corregidor of Tinta. This initial phase of the rebellion in Cusco and the south was marked by key victories, such as the capture of Ayaviri, the battle of Pillpinto, and especially the battle of Sangarará, which consolidated rebel control over the Cusco region. As royalist forces responded with a punitive expedition from Lima, the insurgent movement began to weaken. Túpac Amaru II was captured after being betrayed when retreating to Langui after the defeat in the battle of Combapata on 5 April, 1781, and battle of Checacupe on 6 April. He, along with his family and other commanders, were executed in the Plaza de Armas of Cusco on 18 May, 1781. Despite the death of Túpac Amaru II, Túpac Katari and Diego Cristóbal continued the rebellion in until 1783.

Tupac Amaru II's rebellion was simultaneous, and occasionally cooperated, with the uprising of Túpac Katari in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia). The rebellion was the first large-scale attempt at an independence movement in Latin America and the largest revolt in the Americas prior to the Spanish American wars of independence and Haitian Revolution.

Background

Cerro Rico in Potosí, the largest silver mine in the world, painting form 1715

The government of Spain, to streamline the operation of its colonial empire, began introducing what became known as the Bourbon Reforms throughout South America. In 1776, as part of these reforms, it created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by separating Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and the territory that is now Argentina from the Viceroyalty of Peru. These territories included the economically important silver mines at Potosí, whose economic benefits began to flow to Buenos Aires in the east instead of Cuzco and Lima to the west. The economic hardship this introduced to parts of the Altiplano combined with systemic oppression of indigenous and mestizo underclasses (a recurring source of localized uprisings throughout Spanish colonial South America) to create an environment in which a large-scale uprising could occur.

In 1778 Spain raised sales taxes (known as the alcabala) on goods such as rum and pulque (the common alcoholic beverages of the peasants and commoners) while tightening the rest of its tax system in its colonies, in part to fund its participation in the American Revolutionary War. José Gabriel Condorcanqui, an upper-class indigenous leader with claims to the Inca royal lineage, adopted the name Túpac Amaru II (alluding to Túpac Amaru, the last Inca emperor), and in 1780 called for rebellion. He claimed to be acting on behalf of the King of Spain, enforcing royal authority on the corrupt and treacherous colonial administration. In 1780, during the rebellion, Fernando Vélaz de Medrano, 4th Marquess of Tabuérniga, informed the Prince of Asturias (the future Charles IV of Spain) about the rebellion and widespread corruption among royal officials in South America, particularly regarding the playing card and tobacco monopolies imposed by Minister José de Gálvez, which were seen as a catalyst for the unrest.

Túpac Amaru was motivated in part by reading of a prophecy that the Inca would rule again with British support. He may have been aware of the British colonial rebellion in North America and Spanish involvement in the war. Additionally, the growth of mining as a source of colonial revenue was largely caused by the increased burden placed on indigenous workers who formed the base of the labor used to mine silver, leading to increased unrest.

The insurgent forces fighting in the region were divided into three types: those linked to Túpac Amaru, those aligned with the Kataristas, and those who recognized one or both rebel groups but remained autonomous. The latter, built on local hatreds, did not always heed Túpac Amaru's calls to respect the population considered neutral, mainly mestizos, women, and children. These autonomous rebels were better at assimilating the royalist tactics of seeking to exterminate rather than defeat and disarm the enemy. Furthermore, both rebels and royalists sacrificed any opponent they could capture. This more ferocious form of combat, with less control from leaders, would characterize the second phase uprising in 1781.

First phase

Capture and execution of Antonio de Arriaga

Present day church of Tinta.

On 4 November 1780, after a celebration of the king Charles III in Yanaoca, where cacique Túpac Amaru II and supporters seized Antonio Arriaga, the corregidor of his hometown of Tinta and interim Governor of Tucumán. They forced him to write letters to his treasurer in Tinta requesting money and arms and to other influential individuals and kurakas ordering them to congregate in Tungasuca, where Arriaga was being held prisoner. While Arriaga was being kept in the basement of Túpac Amaru and Micaela Bastidas's home, Túpac Amaru traveled to Arriaga's home in Tinta to seize arms, money, and resources. On 10 November, six days after his capture, Arriaga was executed by hanging by his slave, in front of thousands of gathered indigenous, mestizos, and criollos (locals of recognized Spanish descent).

On 16 November 1780, Túpac Amaru issued a proclamation decreeing the emancipation of Afro-Peruvian and African slaves. In this document, he exhorted all "decent" Spaniards, the clergy, and others friendly with the Peruvian population to join the fight against the hostilities and abuses of the European population; and all those who had been mistreated by the "chapetones" (a derogatory term for Spaniards), including slaves, to abandon them. This decision served a tactical purpose: with the escape of the slaves, the colonial export economy would collapse and the rebel forces would grow. Furthermore, the psychological effect was that in Lima, the upper classes on their haciendas would be more concerned about the defiant slaves and the free blacks and mulattos than about the population of the highlands. These also included ending the mita rotational labor system and limiting the power of the corregidor and thus amplifying his power as cacique and Túpac sought to create a new audiencia at Cusco.

According to the testimony of two possible rebels, Pascual Gutiérrez Sonco and Manuel Chuquipata, captured in December by the mayor of Carabuco, Túpac Amaru requested that his troops use crosses to distinguish themselves. Those who were not indigenous wore paper crosses on their hats, while the indigenous ones wore straw crosses. They also differentiated between Spaniards who could be recruited and the "chapetones" (newly arrived Spaniards), whom they had orders to kill; and they preferred indigenous clothing to European clothing.

Expansion of the rebellion

Following the assassination of Arriaga, Túpac began moving through the countryside, gaining supporters, primarily from the indigenous and mestizo classes, but also with some creoles and freed slaves. Creole Antonio de Figueroa joined the rebels, commanding the artillery regiment. Despite the rebel leaders' efforts to control rumors and the flow of information, news of Arriaga's execution quickly reached the city of Cusco, from where an army of 1,500 militiamen and local volunteers was financed and formed.

Rebel forces assaulting Spanish militia in the Battle of Sangarará

On 17 November, the forces sent by the Spanish authorities in Cusco arrived at the town of Sangarará, camping around the church. The Spanish militia were led by corregidores Tiburcio Landa, Fernando Cabrera, and Pedro Sahuaraura. There was poor communication and much disagreement on ___location of the Spanish camp between the corregidores. On the morning of 18 November, Túpac Amaru's army, which had grown to several thousand men, defeated them at the Battle of Sangarará. Tomasa Tito Condemayta led a women's garrison during the battle. A cartridge of a Spanish soldier caught fire and burned the church. Túpac then turned south, against the advice of his wife and lieutenant Micaela Bastidas, who urged him to attack Cusco before the government could mobilize. Micaela Bastidas was a pivotal force in the rebellion and is often overlooked. Bastidas was known for leading an uprising in the Tungasuca region. Indigenous communities often sided with the rebels, and local militias put up little resistance. It was not long before Túpac's forces had taken control of almost the entire southern Peruvian plateau.

Following his victory at Sangarará, Túpac Amaru returned triumphantly to Tungasuca in mid-November 1780. He and Micaela Bastidas, however, were aware that they had only defeated the first wave sent by the hastily organized junta in the city of Cusco, and they expected a fierce royalist offensive from Peru's second-largest city, Cusco. They were also concerned about an attack by viceroyal troops from the south, either from the Lake Titicaca area or from the city of Arequipa to the southwest. Many in the rebel camp believed that the royalists would first reinforce their forces at their base in the Sacred Valley before advancing north toward the city of Cusco. However, Túpac Amaru planned his strategy southward, towards Lake Titicaca, a predominantly indigenous area where his message of freedom would be very well received in a region that endured the abuses of the mining mita, particularly for the silver mines of Potosí. The Aymara leader, Túpac Katari, claimed to be the viceroy appointed by Tupac Amaru II and led his forces to besiege the city of La Paz with his wife Bartolina Sisa in March 1781.

Spanish reaction

90 kilometers away in Cusco, Bishop Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta directed the royalist efforts, raising money, organizing processions, and communicating with the authorities in Lima, his priests in rebel territory, and the militia leaders. With little or distorted news about events south of the city, the bishop and much of the population feared an imminent encirclement. Reports of rebel actions heading south caused panic among the people of Cusco, given the inaction of the royalist leaders who, after their defeat at Sangarará, had abandoned any kind of attack while awaiting reinforcements from Lima. Both patriots and royalists sought to win the battles of information and propaganda by sending spies and messengers, while inflating their strength and masking their intentions and anxieties.

News of the Túpac Amaru uprising and the execution of Arriaga reached Lima on 24 November, 1780, causing alarm in the city. Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui convened an emergency meeting with the Inspector General of the Navy, Commander José del Valle, the Inspector General José Antonio de Areche, and the members of the Supreme Court. On November 28, Colonel Gabriel de Avilés, departed for Cusco at the head of a select cavalry squadron of 200 members of the militia of the "free pardos" (people of mixed race), with orders to recruit soldiers along their march to Cusco and, if necessary, to bring men from Arequipa. Antonio de Areche would move troops as far off as Cartagena. Meanwhile, Del Valle left Lima on December 20th with 200 additional soldiers. All three expeditions had orders to recruit from the predominantly indigenous population settled between Lima and Cusco.

Túpac Amaru's campaigns in the south

Painting Túpac Amaru II by Tadeo Escalante (1802-1840)

The rebel troops left Tungasuca on 22 November, heading towards the towns of Pichigu, Yauri, and Coporaque, where the royalist curaca Eugenio Sinayuca was proselytizing against the rebellion. The rebel tactic followed a standard procedure: while scouts searched for enemies and supplies, Túpac Amaru delivered a passionate speech about his movement from the church steps. Many listeners joined the rebel forces, and on 25 November, Túpac Amaru wrote a proclamation addressed to the population of Lampa, announcing his campaign against Spanish tyranny and abuses, as well as his commitment to the Creoles; at the same time, he boasted of having 6,000 followers, including indigenous people, Creoles, and people from outside the area. Throughout this campaign, he had at his side Hipólito, his eldest son, and the peninsular artilleryman Antonio de Figueroa. One of the leading commanders, Tomasa Tito Condemayta, commanding a women's brigade in Acos and Acomayo, stopped a royalist militia advance led by Mateo Pumacahua in the Battle of Pillpinto on 26 November. Túpac Amaru ordered the kurakas of the central region to halt any attacks from Cusco while he continued to exert pressure on the south. The main rebel base became Tungasuca, led by second in command, Micaela Bastidas.

After attacking the mining town of Caylloma in late November, from which Spanish officials fled with large amounts of money from the royal treasuries and silver, Túpac Amaru's forces crossed the glacier-covered mountains of La Raya, the dividing line between Cusco and Puno. Reports on the size of his army vary from 10,000 to 60,000 men. On December 4, the rebels reached the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, entering the small town of Macara in modern day northern Argentina.

In mid-November, the royalists had captured Simón Noguera, nephew of Túpac Amaru, at the Queque hacienda, near Santa Rosa, while he was carrying out reconnaissance duties and delivering letters and proclamations inciting rebellion; and, despite the pleas of the local residents, the corregidor Horé pronounced the death sentence. The corregidores of Chucuito, Lampa, Azángaro, Puno, and Carabaya, met in a junta in Lampa on December 4, where they oversaw Noguera's execution. The death of her nephew caused grief to Micaela Bastidas; and Túpac Amaru, who vowed revenge, ordered one rebel group to occupy the Queque hacienda, while another marched to Lampa, from where the corregidores fled and deserters joined Túpac Amaru's side. The leader and his troops triumphantly entered Ayaviri on December 6, where the priests met with them formally and Túpac Amaru gave a speech to recruit men for his army and reassure the Creoles and mestizos.

From Lampa, where he stayed for three days, Túpac Amaru considered going to Upper Peru to join the rebels there led by Túpac Katari, who had begun the Siege of Sorata. He also contemplated the possibility of attacking Arequipa or laying siege to Puno; however, numerous letters from Micaela Bastidas persuaded him to return. Correspondence between Túpac Amaru and his wife revealed their concern that the royalists would attack Tungasuca. The rebel captain in Acomayo, Marcos Torre, reported a lack of weapons and a possible attack from nearby royalist occupied towns. From Pomacanchi, rebel captain Tomás Guaca reported on the desertion of rebels due to lack of food. On December 15, Micaela Bastidas instructed her followers to send more troops. On December 21, two leagues from Cusco in Chita, rebels attacked a royalist battalion led by Francisco Laisequilla, who, with reinforcements from Anta and Abancay, defeated them and returned to Cusco with 25 prisoners and four leaders' heads on pikes, which he displayed around the main square.

Diego Cristóbal's northern campaign

Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, José Gabriel's cousin, led over 6,000 followers toward Paucartambo and the Sacred Valley with the strategy of separating that important agricultural area from the city of Cusco and, if victorious in that campaign, attacking the city from the fortress of Sacsayhuamán as part of rebel plans to siege the city.

1864 illustration of the Mimbres Bridge in Urubamba, Le Tour du Monde

Preparing for an attack on Paucartambo, rebel forces recruited men in the highland villages of Ocongate, Caicay, and Ccata, before advancing towards Písac along the Urubamba River. The commanders of the Cusco War Council, concerned about this rebel offensive, sent reinforcement militias on December 8th, commanded by Lorenzo Pérez Lechuga, a veteran of the Spanish wars in Italy. These reinforcements joined the defense of Paucartambo, led by Major Francisco Celorio. With support from the troops of royalist kuraka Mateo Pumacahua, the royalists defeated Diego Cristóbal's forces near the Pisac bridge, preventing them from capturing this important crossing. The battle concluded with the massacre of all prisoners. The Cusco council labeled this bloody rebel defeat a "glorious triumph," raising the morale of royalist troops and civilians while weakening the patriots. In retaliation, in Calca, the rebels murdered all Europeans indiscriminately under the premise of "killing everyone who was wearing a shirt." Faced with a halt in capturing Paucartambo, Diego Cristóbal decided to retreat to the hills above the Sacred Valley, abandoning his plan to surround Cusco from the north.

Siege of Cusco

18th century map of Cusco

On December 20, faced with numerous warnings by Micaela Bastidas, Túpac Amaru ordered his army to depart for the city of Cusco. Advancing rapidly through the province of Quispicanchi, he followed the route through neighboring towns from the south. Antonio Castelo led a smaller vanguard group through the valley with orders to recruit, attack royalist forces, plunder haciendas, and surround the city from the north. On January 2, alerted by the priest of Urcos, the royalist cavalry defeated Castelo in the battle of Saylla, capturing a flag bearing the coat of arms of Túpac Amaru and halted his advance. Meanwhile, Diego Cristóbal returned to the Sacred Valley with the intention of opening a second front.

Túpac Amaru ordered the mobilization of his troops to surround the city, beginning the Siege of Cusco, which would last for over a week. Both sides clashed in bloody hand-to-hand combat, with weapons and cannons adding to the carnage. The revolutionary force attacked with bravery and tenacity, encouraged by Túpac Amaru, riding a white horse and sharing all the risks of the siege. Likewise, the high command of the defenders of Cusco carried out their duties effectively, with the bishop and the mayor playing particularly noteworthy roles. Reinforced by 8,000 men, the forces defending the city numbered over 12,000 soldiers.

Finally, discouraged by the lack of support from the city's population and the desertions caused by the harsh conditions of the rebel camp in the hills of Cusco, and refusing to massacre the indigenous troops that the royalists placed in the vanguard, Túpac Amaru ordered the end of the siege on January 11, 1781.

Spanish punitive expedition

Map of the Cusco region during the rebellion, used by the Royalist army

After being repelled from the capital of the Incan empire of Cusco, the rebels march around the southern plataeu, gathering forces to attempt to fight back. Troops from Lima were instrumental in helping repel Túpac's siege of Cuzco from 28 December 1780 to 10 January 1781. Following these failures, his coalition of disparate malcontents began to fall apart, with the upper-caste Creoles abandoning him first to rejoin the loyalist forces. Further defeats and Spanish offers of amnesty for rebel defectors hastened the collapse of Túpac's forces. However, a large part of the initial rebel army remained. Led by the Visitor General, José Antonio de Areche, and the Inspector General, José del Valle, approximately 15,000 reinforcement troops of the Royal Army of Peru from Lima entered Cusco on February 24, 1781. The official count listed 17,116 soldiers in Cusco, although the actual number may have been over 20,000.

The royalist army divided its troops into six columns to converge on the rebel base around Tinta. Del Valle's plan involved advancing two columns from the east, two more from the west, while the reserve corps and artillery attacked from the center. Simultaneously, the two detachments would prevent the rebel retreat to the northwest. All the columns were to meet before reaching the town of Tinta and attack together, continuing on to the southern provinces and from there linking up with the troops of Upper Peru in the Lake Titicaca region. In Cusco, Antonio de Areche remained in command of 1,000 soldiers from the Pardos de Lima company, a group of volunteers from Ayacucho, the Cusco militia, and numerous indigenous troops commanded by royalist kurakas.

Areche publicly recognized royalist supporters and conferred the rank of captain upon Mateo Pumacahua and other royalist kurakas. Days later, he issued a widely distributed decree, offering a pardon to rebels who surrendered their weapons and appeared in the city, excluding 35 people from this decree, including Micaela Bastidas, Túpac Amaru, his family, and his leading commanders. Seeking to divide the rebels, the inspector also offered a reward of eighty pesos a month to anyone who betrayed their leaders.

Tinta campaign

Crisnejos Bridge in Combapata in the 19th century, Le tour du Monde

Informed by his spies, the Túpac Amaru II's main objective was to destroy the central royalist outpost, where the royalist high command was stationed, for which he devised a ruse. On March 18, he sent word to Del Valle that, on the occasion of the feast of Saint Joseph, he would launch a vigorous attack the following day. Del Valle kept his men on constant alert and slowed their march as a precaution, which caused him to lose sight of the rebels. Túpac Amaru took advantage of this situation to conceal his troops and mislead the royalist command. On March 22, the opportune moment for a surprise attack arose in the frozen region of Pucacasa, beginning the Battle of Pucacasa. But, while the rebel forces were pitching their tents to face the harsh weather, an escaped prisoner reached the royalist camp and warned them of the surprise maneuver that would unfold that night. Forewarned of the attack, Del Valle took every precaution and remained on the lookout. When the attack began, the rebels were met with heavy rifle fire and failed to gain control of the royalist camp and withdrew the following day. Despite the warning, Del Valle's troops barely managed to repel the attack after receiving reinforcements from the column led by Juan Manuel Campero, suffering major losses. Del Valle witnessed his troops collapsing in the snow, exhausted from days without sleep, hunger, and extreme cold. For this reason, he began his retreat to the royalist base in the Sacred Valley, where the general suffered desertion from indigenous troops, although the members of the black militia and Pumacahua's forces remained loyal to the royalists.

After the disaster at Pucacasa, Del Valle led his troops toward Tinta, the rebel stronghold. At Urcos, the rebels cut the bridge, causing the royalists to lose several days crossing the Urubamba River. The royalists then captured Quiquijana, which had been abandoned by the rebels. In retaliation, the Spanish commander hanged Luis Pomainga, a distant relative of Túpac Amaru, and others he considered rebels. Believing Tupac Amaru would head to Paucartambo, Del Valle planned to fan out the royalists columns to surround the main rebel army. Tupac Amaru's captains, Tomás Parvina and Felipe Miguel Bermúdez in Chumbivilcas, faced with desertion and depletion on resources, attacked Del Valle in the town of Santo Tomás on 21 March, in a last attempt to halt royalist advance. Del Valle described the courage of both Parvina and Bermúdez, who died fighting beneath the only cannon. After the battle, the royalists executed the prisoners and paraded the heads of Parvina and Bermúdez on pikes. Pedro Vilcapaza and his second in command Ramón Ponce, confronted royalists around Puno, preparing for a siege on the city. On April 6, Areche complained that the Cusco region "is more disturbed and rebellious than ever."

After delays caused by crossing the river at Urcos and waiting for the last columns from Cusco, the royalist army descended into the valley toward the rebel base. Túpac Amaru's forces harassed their enemies from Urcos to Combapata with guerrilla attacks and artillery fire from their only mobile cannon. By the end of March, the royalist forces were approaching the rebel base north of Tinta, in the hills above the valley where the Salca River flows into the Urubamba. Thanks to deserters , the royalists learned that the rebels were suffering from a shortage of supplies .

On the night of April 4, the rebels attacked royalists Villalta's second column in Combapata, which had arrived that same day, beheading four sentries. However, a fifth sentry fired his weapon, and the suddenly woke up the other columns. With volleys of rifle fire, they forced the rebels to abandon the heights and enter the valley and started the Battle of Combapata. In open battle, on relatively flat and open terrain, and without the element of surprise, the royalists had the advantage. Using their superior cavalry and weaponry , the royalists attacked, encircling their enemies, probably informed of their strength and exact location by a deserter. Túpac Amaru, who was in the midst of his troops, managed to evade the encirclement by diving into the Urubamba River, even at the risk of drowning . It took the royalists hours to cross the river because the rebels had destroyed the only bridge. A day later, the rebel forces who retreated from the battle, without the leadership of Túpac Amaru, confronted royalists in the Battle of Checacupe, suffering defeat.

Capture of Túpac Amaru II

First attempt of execution of Túpac Amaru II.

After the battle of Combapata and Checacupe, Tupac Amaru managed to escape, with rebel forces destroying the bridges crossing the Urubamba River, halting royalists to pursue Tupac Amaru. Tupac Amaru was able to retreat to Langui where he was received by Colonel Ventura Landaeta and Captain Francisco de la Cruz, who urged him to rest before continuing his journey. His plan was to retreat to Upper Peru and regroup with the rebels being led by Túpac Katari, who was beginning the Siege of La Paz.

Amaru II was betrayed by Landaeta and de la Cruz, which led to his capture, along with battalion leader Tomasa Tito Condemayta. On April 7, Landaeta and de la Cruz also handed over to the royalists Micaela Bastidas, her two sons, Hipólito and Fernando, other members of her family and rebel captains, who were seeking to escape to La Paz through Livitaca. Del Valle's army transferred Túpac Amaru and 30 other prisoners to Tinta. Diego Cristóbal, who led the scattered rebels, had plans to rescue Túpac Amaru and the other prisoners from Urcos. He would attack Layo, successfully defeating royalists, however, Antonio de Areche left with the main convey alongside Del Valle, arriving in Cusco on 14 April with great applause and celebration.

Over the course of a month, Túpac Amaru and his fellow commanders would go on trial and face severe torture. When his captors attempted to procure the names of his rebel accomplices from him in exchange for promises, Amaru II scornfully replied "There are no accomplices here other than you and I. You as oppressor, I as liberator, deserve to die." While awaiting his death, Túpac attempted escape two times and wrote letters using falling blood from his arm.

On 15 May 1781, Túpac was sentenced to death, and on 18 May forced to witness the execution of his wife and one of his children before he was himself quartered. Túpac's youngest son, Fernando was imprisoned and exiled to Africa until being moved to Cádiz. The location of the executions was in the center of the Plaza de Armas of Cusco. The four horses running in opposite directions failed to tear his limbs apart, and so Túpac was beheaded. Despite the death of Túpac Amaru II, the rebellion continued until 1783 by his relatives other leaders.

Second phase

Katari brothers

Troubling news reached Cusco from the Lake Titicaca and Collao region that other rebels were threatening much of the Real Audiencia of Charcas. Royalists worried that the rebellion could paralyze Charcas and separate Upper Peru from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Even worse for the Spanish would be if the rebels in Upper Peru joined forces with the followers of Túpac Amaru, starting a struggle that would spread from Cusco to Potosí, and potentially further. Between 1780 and 1782, Túpac Amaru and the Túpac and Tomás Katari revolutionaries made intermittent efforts to unite, an alliance the royalists sought to prevent. Unlike the Túpac Amaru II Rebellion, Charcas was the site of several related but ununified rebellions. In the Chayanta region, north of Potosí, tensions between the indigenous people and the colonial authorities escalated in the late 1770s.

In 1778, Tomás Katari, a humble Aymara man from the Chayanta region, argued against the Alcabala and Mit'a on behalf of the village of Macha before the Audiencia of Buenos Aires, and, like José Gabriel who was in Lima at the same time, Katari returned home disillusioned with the viceregal legal system. During his return from Buenos Aires, Katari was imprisoned, freed by his followers, and imprisoned again until, on August 26, 1780, Indigenous people from across the region stormed the town of Pocoata and captured the corregidor Joaquín Alós , whom they exchanged for Katari. Subsequently, the Chayanta community governed itself after Katari and his followers reinvented the relationship between communities and the stat . In mid-December, a militia captain, Juan Antonio Acuña, arrested the leader and, when the indigenous people attacked the convoy, executed Katari. The attackers killed Acuña and his entourage, leaving their bodies unburied and Acuña's eyes gouged out.

Tomás Katari's brothers, Dámaso and Nicolás, assumed leadership of the insurrection forming a massive rebel army that swept through towns and communities, targeting Spaniards and Creoles, as well as colonial institutions of exploitation such as haciendas, textile workshops, and mestizo settlements. Coordinating with other communities, they led the siege of the city of Sucre, then known as La Plata, in February 1781. Dámaso Katari expressed confidence in securing the support of Túpac Amaru; however, the alliance failed to materialize due to the two groups being preoccupied with their respective regions. Indigenous people loyal to the Spanish captured Dámaso and Nicolás Katari. The authorities publicly and gruesomely executed Dámaso on April 27, 1781, in La Plata, and murdered Nicolás on May 7, weeks before the death of Túpac Amaru.

Oruro Rebellion

Painting of the Oruro Rebellion, 1781

In the city of Oruro, wealthy Creoles allied themselves with the lower classes and the indigenous peasantry to combat Spanish power in an uprising that resembled the Túpac Amaru rebellion in its hierarchical and multi-class sociology. After hearing of plans on an uprising, the corregidor Ramón de Urrutia y Las Casas formed a militia on 9 February 1781. The following day, the militia targeted rebel creole, Jacinto Rodríguez y Herrera, who was one of the main organizers of the insurrection, but he had already left the city. Urrutia ordered barricades along the main square However, many of the militiamen were against Urrutia and after facing mutiny, he fled to Cochabamba. Corregidor Juan de Dios Rodríguez y Herrera assumed control after Urrutia's departure, who forcefully expelled indigenous citizens of the city.

On 10 February 1781, rebels took to the streets of Oruro, ransacking homes and important buildings. The Spanish fled to the hills surrounding the city and fired upon main rebel camps, killing women and children. In retaliation, rebels massacred anyone loyal to the Spanish. To avoid being attacked, many Creoles dressed in indigenous clothing and went about shouting "Long live Túpac Amaru!". On February 13, Sergeant Sebastian Pagador , head of the guard at the Royal Treasury building, made the imprudent decision to assault one of the indigenous leaders, which provoked a violent reaction from them: he was killed in the same block. After hearing news of the rebellion, Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo sent Sebastián de Segurola to suppress the uprising and capture its principal leaders. After a few weeks, the rebels successfully won the uprising. They would maintain control of Oruro until 1783 when reinforcements invaded the city and executed any rebels. In 1784, a court case known as the La Causa de Oruro took place to put crimes of treason on rebels, ordered by King Charles III.

Túpac Katari and Diego Cristóbal

In February 1781, Julián Apaza, an indigenous peasant from Sica Sica, assumed the name Túpac Katari in honor of both Túpac Amaru and the Katari brothers, led an uprising of the communities surrounding the city of La Paz. As an unknown and humble figure, the Spanish initially believed that Túpac Amaru was behind the violence that erupted in the area. Upon realizing that they were being led by Túpac Katari, royalist propaganda attempted to ridicule him for his social origins, physical features, and limited command of the Spanish language; however, these attempts had the opposite effect, as the indigenous masses sympathized even more with their leader. These characterizations must be treated critically as they reflect the social hierarchies of the time and viceregal paranoia.

Siege of La Paz led by Túpac Katari in 1781, painting by Alejandro René Gonzáles Estrada.

In early 1780, Tupac Katari oversaw attacks in Sica sica, between Oruro and La Paz, while his followers extended the fight all the way to Lake Titicaca. In March 1781, his forces began the First Siege of La Paz. Like Túpac Amaru , Túpac Katari relied heavily on his wife, Bartolina Sisa, as well as his sister, Gregoria Apaza, who collaborated in planning and carrying out the attacks themselves.

After Túpac Amaru's capture and execution, his surviving relatives, namely his cousin Diego Cristóbal, continued the rebellion, albeit using guerilla tactics, and transferred the rebellion's focal point to the Collao highlands around Lake Titicaca. Túpac Katari exchanged correspondence with Diego Cristóbal, and both armies converged in the area east of Lake Titicaca and north of La Paz. In March, the Katari forces supported the siege of Puno, and also attacked Juli, Acora, Ilave, and Chucuito. The attack on Juli resulted in 400 deaths.

At Condorcuyo, outside Asillo, revolutionary forces commanded by Pedro Vilcapaza, one of the leading rebel figures in the area northwest of Lake Titicaca, clashed with Del Valle's army, who advanced on Upper Peru after Túpac Amaru's capture. According to one hyperbolic account, the insurgents, "which appeared to number 100,000 men," intimidated the royalist troops with shouts and insults, waving flags and playing drums and trumpets . A squadron from Lima attacked them on the open plain , but they counterattacked and killed fifteen soldiers. Royalist indigenous troops part of Mateo Pumacahua's forces who had joined Del Valle, shouted a promise of pardon if they surrendered, but the rebels replied that their objective was to take Cusco to "set free their idolized Inca." The royalists attacked in four groups the next day, May 7 1781, taking advantage of their cannons and rifles. According to the Spanish, in that battle they “killed more than six hundred rebels and wounded many more.” The courage of the insurgents astonished Del Valle; the tally labeled the victory a miracle.

Lasting sieges

The rebel forces surrounded Puno, Katari 's forces to the south and Diego Cristóbal's to the north, and attacked on April 10. For the city's defense, fortresses were built, trenches were dug , and cannons were positioned, with militia units stationed outside the city and artillerymen in the towers.

On May 7, Diego Cristóbal crossed the cliffs west of Puno and dislodged the royalist troops from the "Azogue Hill," pursuing them to the Santa Bárbara fortress. Rebels then surrounded the city and cut off its supply lines. The rebel forces set fire to houses and used the sounds of their weapons and instruments, as well as their shouts, to intimidate their enemies. The attack lasted several days, with insurgent groups pressing toward the main square while others raided arms depots on the outskirts. Diego Cristóbal withdrew on the morning of May 12, apparently opposed to the idea of ​​a prolonged siege in which his forces would starve the residents of Puno.

Diego Cristóbal consolidated his base in Azángaro and sought to move southeast and link up with the uprising of Túpac Katari. Andrés Túpac Amaru took charge of the Titicaca area and, together with Pedro Vilcapaza, oversaw the Siege of Sorata. In the town, 2,000 refugees of nearby towns and cities gathered. Although organized into companies and armed, the population began to run out of food within weeks. Fearing massacre, the besieged in Sorata refused to surrender. On August 5th, rebel forces were able to break the town's defenses and captured the town.

Andrés Túpac Amaru then left to join Túpac Katari, who besieged La Paz again in August 1781. The siege began on August 7th. In early October, Andrés Túpac Amaru attempted to repeat his strategy at Sorata and dam the Choqueyapu River to flood La Paz. But this time his project failed because a retaining wall broke before the water could be diverted into the basin formed by the city. However, the rebels succeeded in blocking supplies from entering La Paz, so hunger and disease spread again. Survivors told stories of parents watching their children and spouses watching their wives double over in pain and die of malnutrition “without the breath even to complain.” People ate dogs that had survived by feeding on corpses; some accounts hint at cannibalism. The sounds of the besieged city also tormented those inside, such as the shouts of rebels threatening to attack the city mixed with the moans of children and adults begging for food.

On October 17, Commander José de Reseguín reached La Paz with 10,000 troops and supplies, breaking the siege once again. Andrés Túpac Amaru handed over operations to Miguel Bastidas, brother of Micaela Bastidas, and fled to Azángaro, presumably preferring guerrilla tactics to a direct confrontation with the well-armed royalist contingent. Túpac Katari initially resisted, seizing the hills above the city, but days later sought to join forces with Miguel Bastidas. Both failed to thwart Reseguín's offensive, and the grand rebel alliance and control of La Paz came to an end. Subsequently, the royalists took the offensive in Upper Peru, recapturing Oruro and attacking the rebels in Cochabamba and other major cities. Royalist commanders offered amnesty to rebel followers who renounced fighting. Túpac Katari rejected it, along with the option of turning to the royalists, but learned with horror that some of his most trusted allies and thousands of his followers were accepting it in early November.

Amnesty pact

General Del Valle, who had returned to Cusco in July 1781, was convinced that the Spanish would soon lose the war. This was due to the massive support the indigenous population gave to the rebels, who were taking advantage of the terrain by employing guerrilla tactics against the defeated royalist troops. The Spanish general wrote to the viceroy on August 8, 1781, to suggest an amnesty for all combatants, except for the rebel leaders. He later modified the proposal to include the leaders who accepted the armistice. The viceroy consulted with his advisors and added a one-year exemption from tribute to make it more appealing to the indigenous taxpayers. Agustín de Jáuregui signed the amnesty, or pardon, on September 12. And the corregidor Francisco Salcedo handed it over to Diego Cristóbal in Azángaro.

View of Sicuani in 1864

After faced with the execution of Katari and the Katarista's leaders, Diego Cristóbal met with Bishop Moscoso and Del Valle at his camp outside Sicuani on January 26, 1782. Many other leaders like Andrés Túpac Amaru were cautious on the amnesty. Diego Cristóbal gave the commander a note promising his surrender, while the Spanish commander and the bishop agreed to favorable terms of the armistice for the rebels. They sealed the pact with festive meals and numerous masses. Bishop Moscoso lifted the excommunication since 1780, and also confirmed the marriage of Diego Cristóbal and Manuela Tito Condori on January 29, 1782.

In the following days and weeks, thousands of indigenous people reached Sicuani to confirm their acceptance of the amnesty, 30,000 according to Moscoso and Peralta. On February 20, Viceroy Jauregui requested celebratory masses, lanterns, and the ringing of bells in Lima to celebrate the peace. The last organized remnants of the rebellion would be vanquished by 1783, though sporadic violence continued for many months.

Betrayal

Diego, his mother, and several of his allies would be arrested and executed anyway by Spanish authorities in Cuzco on 19 July 1783 on the pretext he had broken the peace accords.

During the rebellion, especially after the death of Túpac Amaru II, non-natives were systematically killed by the rebels. Some historians have described these killings aimed at non-natives, in conjunction with attempts to violently eradicate various non-native cultural customs, as genocidal in nature.

Many of the leaders who fought in the rebellion after Túpac de Amaru's death were discovered to be women (32 out of 73) and were later acknowledged by the eventual liberator of Spanish America, Simón Bolívar in his speech in 1820.

Combatants

Rebels

The first phase rebels led by Túpac Amaru II were made up largely of the indigenous Quechua and Aymara people, though the Quechua population was larger than the Aymara in Peru. Prior to the rebellion, Túpac Amaru held great prestige among other kurakas, corregidores, and priests, due to his support to the Catholic Church, noble title, and economic power. Following Inca cultural traditions, the rebellion was based on a genuine kinship network, as Túpac Amaru first mobilized his own people, his relatives and close associates from the province of Tinta. Túpac Amaru's army however, was very mixed compared to that of the second phase, with a particular emphasis on encouraging the participation of Creoles and Mestizos in the rebellion. Key creole leaders included Antonio Castelo and Antonio de Figueroa, however, the two leaders would later defect to the Spanish side. In addition, Túpac Amaru also emphasized the abolishment of slavery and few Afro-Peruvian slaves took part in the rebellion with the hope of expanding to the coast where slaves were most prominent. Antonio de Arriaga's execution was carried out by his slave, Antonio Oblitas, who would join the rebels and later be executed along with the main leaders on 18 May 1781. Most of the leading commanders held the indigenous noble Kuraka title. Indigenous people who did not hold a prior title were rarely placed in command of troops, generally serving as simple foot soldiers and rank-and-file troops. This was likely due to the political acumen and broad vision of Túpac Amaru, who determined that achieving his objectives required the support of the Creoles, as they possessed firearms training, cultural knowledge, and important connections.

In the second phase, Túpac Katari's rebels employed guerrilla tactics, harassing the royalists at night or launching swift hit-and-run attacks. Spanish commanders, trained to fight on the open plains of Europe and wage the campaigns in which Napoleon would later excel, complained bitterly about the rebel strategy of using the mountains. Violence also escalated on both sides; neither the rebels nor the royalists took prisoners, and massacres and the killing of dozens or hundreds of unarmed people became more common than actual military engagements. Another tactical change that also alarmed the royalists was that the young rebel leaders proved willing to starve the enemy into submission by laying prolonged sieges of towns and villages. Starving and panicked, royalist soldiers deserted en masse.

Spanish Empire

The Viceroyalties of Spain had a limited army and navy. Most of the Viceroyalty relied on the Royal Spanish Navy and militiamen. The punitive expedition led by José del Valle, Antonio de Areche, and Gabriel de Avilés was made up of regularly trained soldiers and cavalry units but with little numbers. about 1,000 professional soldiers were sent by Lima to Cusco, increasing to over 20,000 with the addition of royalist indigenous forces led by Mateo Pumacahuaand militiamen. Most of the Royal Army of Peru were made up of creole and European born soldiers, with modern equipment and trained cavalry. Reinforcements were sent from the Viceroyalty of New Granada as well. Despite this, the royalist forces also faced difficulties: Feeding such a large army , as it pushed further and further beyond Cusco, was difficult, and they suffered from cold and hunger due to a lack of supplies. Additionally, when marching through the narrow valleys , the rebels harassed them from the peaks and ambushed them. Another significant problem, especially for those from the coast, was the thin air. Short of food and oxygen, the horses refused to continue, and within weeks, all but the commanders would be on foot. A little over a month after the parade of gallant horses through the streets of Cusco, the royalists were forced to abandon them, and even eat them. Despite their organization, weapons, and numbers, the royalists proved not to be the invincible force that many believed them to be upon their arrival in Cusco.

In the southern area, the Spanish could only rely on local militias and small battalions led by corregidores that is, the same line of defense that had yielded such poor results against Túpac Amaru in late 1780. These units fared even worse in 1781. Those who fled the Collao brought accounts to Cusco of rebel natives beheading people, drowning children, mutilating bodies, and drinking their blood. Corregidor Joaquín de Orellana added to such stories accounts of rebels hunting Spaniards on horseback for miles, people diving into the frozen Lake Titicaca to escape the rebels, and groups of frantic Europeans and mestizos fleeing toward Arequipa.

Defeating Túpac Amaru's followers after his death, along with Túpac Katari's overwhelming loyal forces, proved difficult, costly, and frustrating. The Spanish forces stationed in Upper Peru and sent by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata quickly degenerated into hungry and ragged soldiers, marching on foot, up and down the austere Andes, fearful of rebel attacks and aware that the indigenous people despised them. Their numbers dwindled with every step due to desertions , and supplies ran out the further they moved from Cusco. The escalating violence in the Titicaca area, the Katarista rebellion, the First Siege of La Paz, and the brutality in nearby towns also terrified the royalists, diminishing the initial optimism derived from the capture and executions.

Women in the rebellion

Throughout the mid-1700s, women had a changing role throughout Latin America. They began getting involved politically, economically, and culturally. Women had begun getting involved in the workforce, particularly producing cotton cloth and working as market traders. Because of these growing gender role changes, women were involved in the Túpac Amaru II revolt. Túpac's wife, Micaela Bastidas, had commanded her battalion, and she and her battalion were responsible for the uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucan region. Micaela Bastidas and Bartolina Sisa took part in demonstrations against high prices, food distribution networks, racist treatment of Natives, high taxes, and tightening restrictions on the colonies. In addition, Tomasa Tito Condemayta played a major role for the rebels in leading her own battalion, along with Gregoria Apaza commanding her army in the Siege of La Paz. Although women were involved in the revolution and had a very active role throughout their villages, leading to independence throughout the region, they had received little attention for their efforts.

Aftermath

Monument of Túpac Amaru II in Cusco

The ultimate death toll is estimated at 100,000 indigenous and 10,000–40,000 non-natives. Subsequently, the amnesty agreement with Diego Cristóbal facilitated a brutal repression by the viceregal authorities against the cities and towns that still supported the rebellion, primarily in the south against the diminished forces of Túpac Katari and Pedro Vilcapaza. The repression of the Kataristas in Upper Peru alone between late 1782 and early 1783 resulted in thousands of deaths. Conspiracies and uprisings were also suppressed in Quito, Tacna, Arica, Chile,and other regions that supported the major rebellion. On the other hand, it influenced the radicalization of some leaders of the simultaneous Revolt of the Comuneros of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.

Viceroy Jáuregui lessened mita obligations in an attempt to ameliorate some of the indigenous peoples' complaints. In 1784, his successor, Teodoro de Croix, abolished the corregidors and reorganized the colonial administration around eight intendants. In 1787, an audiencia was established in Cuzco.

Areche's decrees following the execution of Túpac Amaru II included the banning of the Quechua language, the wearing of indigenous clothing, and virtually any mention or commemoration of Inca culture and history. Areche's attempts to destroy Inca culture after the execution of Túpac Amaru II were confirmed by royal decree in April 1782; however, colonial authorities lacked the resources to enforce these laws, and they were soon largely forgotten. Still, paintings depicting the Inca were destroyed, and the juridical institution of the cacique was abolished, with many caciques being replaced by administrators from outside the native locality. This undermined the power of indigenous rulership despite concessions from the viceroyalty.

See also

• Revolt of the Comuneros, a 1781 revolt in the Viceroyalty of New Granada caused by the Bourbon Reforms
• Huilliche uprising of 1792, an indigenous uprising in southern Chile against Spanish encroachment.

Sources

• Meade, Teresa (2016). History of modern Latin America – 1800 to the present (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-77248-5.

Further reading

• O'Phelan, Scarlett. La gran rebelión en los Andes: de Túpac Amaru a Túpac Catari. Cuzco, Perú – Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de las Casas", [1995].

External links

• The Hispanic American Historical Review, Volume 2
• Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in the Americas 1492–1830